Illicit behavior in Portuguese America – Daniel Costa’s (UNIFESP) review of the book “Ladrões da República: Corrupção, moral e cobiça no Brasil, séculos XVI a XVIII”, by Adriana Romeiro
Abstract: In her book Thieves of the Republic: Corruption, Morality, and Greed in Brazil, 16th-18th Centuries, Adriana Romeiro aims to understand corruption in colonial Brazil. To this end, she employs a wide variety of sources to explore the relationships between money, government, and corruption. The work has been praised for its depth and criticized for its density.
Keywords: Corruption, morality, and Republic.
It is evident that those who are informed about the news and the activities of Brazilian politicians, even in a superficial manner, are aware that corruption is a recurring theme. From the term “sea of mud,” coined by Carlos Lacerda during his campaign against the Vargas government in the 1950s, to the image shown by Jornal Nacional of oil pipelines gushing with dirty money at the height of the infamous Lava Jato operation, the subject, which should be taken seriously, is used as fodder for a partial, shallow debate based on many interests, except for actually combating such practices. The recent publication of Ladrões da República: Corrupção, Moral e Cobiça no Brasil, Séculos XVI a XVIII (Thieves of the Republic: Corruption, Morality and Greed in Brazil, 16th to 18th Centuries) by Adriana Romeiro offers a fundamental study for understanding this practice in Brazil between the 16th and 18th centuries.
Adriana Romeiro holds a PhD in History from the State University of Campinas (Unicamp) and is a professor in the History Department at the Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG). Over the course of eleven chapters, the historian, who specializes in political cultures in Minas Gerais and corruption in the Iberian world, endeavors to elucidate the perception of the ideas, images, and practices of corruption during the period in question. “Of the many phenomena associated with this word, I was particularly interested in investigating the relationship between money, government, and corruption. This investigation was undertaken in order to understand how the debate was articulated at the time, both in discourse and in practice, on the subject of the greed of rulers.” (p. 17).
Over the course of eleven chapters, the historian endeavors to elucidate the perceptions of the ideas, images, and practices of corruption during the period under consideration. Of the myriad phenomena associated with this word, the author was particularly interested in investigating the relationship between money, government, and corruption. This investigation was undertaken with the objective of understanding how the debate surrounding the greed of rulers was then articulated, both in discourse and in practice.
In order to further elucidate the nuances of corruption in the political and social imagination of the period, Romeiro draws upon the theses presented in the book Corrupção e Poder no Brasil: Uma História, Séculos XVI a XVIII (Corruption and Power in Brazil: A History, 16th to 18th Centuries), released in 2017. To achieve this, the historian draws upon a diverse array of sources, including official colonial administration documentation, literary and theatrical plays, political and moral treatises, and other historical materials. According to Adriana Romeiro, the historian’s use of a diverse range of sources is intended to demonstrate that the discourses associating corruption with the love of money and practices of favoritism were not confined to political-moral writings, but were instead widely shared and shaped the grammar and political practice of men and women (p. 19).
The meaning of the word “corruption” and the very act of corrupting have not been immune to the transformations that have taken place in society over time. This has led to heated debates among historians about the relevance of using the concept of corruption for cases that occurred in the 18th century. The lack of clarity in the use of the term can lead historians to commit various anachronisms, which can cause damage to the analysis of the cases in question. To mitigate these risks, Adriana employs an analytical strategy informed by the history of concepts as elucidated by historian Reinhart Koselleck. In the introductory chapter of the publication, the historian delineates her methodology for navigating the potential pitfalls. She writes, “In order to exorcise the ghost of the present, I have endeavored to approach the past in the same way that anthropologists observe traditional communities, taking the necessary methodological precautions so as not to empty it of its otherness.” Furthermore, she states that the methodology employed can be summarized as the “analytical reconstruction of differences.” As a result, the reader will encounter, for example, an almost obsessive care in the treatment of the lexicon with which contemporaries at the time elaborated the reflection on corruption (p. 18).
In addition to Koselleck, the author draws upon the analytical method developed by Romeiro to continue the historiographical tradition established by prominent figures such as Sérgio Buarque de Holanda, Caio Prado Júnior, Fernando Novais, and Laura de Mello e Souza. In addition to the aforementioned authors, the reader will be able to engage in a productive dialogue with Hispanic authors, as the subject has recently undergone a significant shift in theoretical perspectives. After overcoming the dominant discourse on the subject, which advocated moralistic interpretations, the subject has witnessed a vigorous movement of renewal in recent decades (p.21).
The author identifies several reasons for the prominence of this dialogue with Hispanic authors. One reason is that in the Luso-Brazilian academic milieu, the history of corruption seems to advance at a slow pace, still relegated to a position that is more transversal than central. This is perplexing when one considers the pivotal role of corruption in the colonial universe. This phenomenon was intrinsic to the society of the time, manifesting in various forms, including local politics, the formation of an economic and political elite, and, most importantly, the process of capital accumulation.
The first two chapters of the book are dedicated to elucidating the meaning of corruption in the context of the Republic and humanity during that period. The association between the interpretation of corruption as a political act and the corruption of society as a whole can be seen as a key factor in the perception of corruption as a highly detrimental phenomenon. According to Romeiro, The term “corruption” was employed in two distinct fields: medical treatises and political-moral writings. In the former, it was used to describe pathological conditions associated with the deterioration of bodily parts, while in the latter, it referred to the process of moral decay and the decline of republican institutions.
In subsequent chapters, the historian presents examples from various sources, including moral and political writings, sermons, poems, and literature, to illustrate the individuals and groups who were corrupted by the phenomenon of corruption and contributed to the downfall of the Roman Republic. Thus, among those who were prodigal, avaricious, or tyrannical in their service, the common good was mixed with the private. Romeiro explains that “the notion of the common good presented itself as a field of dispute over its multiple meanings, which reflected the plurality of social groups’ horizons of expectation.” However, such clashes did not prevent the meaning from generally resulting in “manipulation to cover up and promote private interests” (p.145).
In tracing the process of consolidating an administrative structure in the colony, Adriana Romeiro demonstrates how the perception of acts of corruption gradually acquired new meanings for the population, moving from an attitude of tolerance to confrontation. This is exemplified by the case where “residents of Salvador sent an attorney to Lisbon with the mission of presenting their complaints to the king” (p.188) about the local council’s attitude towards collecting taxes and awarding contracts.
The intricate relationships between rulers and their servants, relatives, and close friends are examined by the author, who shows that, faced with pre-established conventions and considering the derisory salaries, these authorities ended up taking advantage of illicit expedients to support their cronies, generating noise among the population. This was also frowned upon by the Crown, which wanted a harmonious territory with peaceful governance.
Corrupt and corrupting courtiers | Image: IF/ChatGPT
In the face of the various cases of corruption, those who committed the crime did not always face consequences. Instead, the network of established relationships often resulted in the person responsible for the crime being released. A case in point is the governor Sebastião de Castro e Caldas, classified by one historian as “a despotic, immoral man, without religion and whose ambition knew no bounds” (p. 322). A governor who “had put private convenience above the interests of the Crown” had carried out “a veritable rosary of misdeeds” (p. 344). After being sent to Portugal under arrest, his residence was approved and he was even rehabilitated.
The case of Castro Caldas, one of several episodes narrated by the author throughout the book, illustrates the significance of the protection networks established by these agents. For the chamberlains, the governor’s actions had been so damaging that “two hands of paper would not be enough to write to Your Majesty about the oppressions, annoyances, and hardships suffered by these people” (p. 344). With regard to the judge responsible for his residence, the author notes that the judge did not impute any crime to him. Instead, the judge praised Caldas, stating that he was “one of the best governors to have known that captaincy,” and that he had acted with satisfaction, cleanliness of hands, zeal, care, and integrity in the duties of his office (p. 344).
In her recent publication, Ladrões da República: Corrupção, Moral e Cobiça no Brasil, Séculos XVI a XVIII (Thieves of the Republic: Corruption, Morality and Greed in Brazil, 16th to 18th Centuries), historian Adriana Romeiro presents a comprehensive and detailed analysis of the historical context surrounding corruption in Brazil. The book is a dense work, both in terms of the number of sources cited and the extensive bibliography consulted. In the book’s introduction, Romeiro states that the thesis presented throughout the pages concerns the existence of a robust web of moral norms that established limits for the actions of public figures, with the aim of preventing them from appropriating other people’s property in the exercise of their functions. The author takes a stance against researchers from the modern age who view enrichment through positions and posts, as well as the favoring of relatives and friends, as legitimate and socially accepted practices. The author’s objective is to demonstrate that the association of these behaviors with corruption was pervasive in the treatises and speeches of the vassals, influencing what might be termed the moral economy of corruption (p. 19).
In light of the aforementioned, Adriana Romeiro has fulfilled the objectives set for her work. Despite the density of the text, it is recommended reading for non-academic readers, as the list of examples provided by the author contributes to understanding her theses. At the same time, she offers various paths for those dedicated to studying the subject and challenges common assumptions about corruption, which is experienced on a daily basis by some political groups and sectors of the hegemonic media.
Summary of Ladrões da República: Corrupção, moral e cobiça no Brasil, séculos XVI a XVIII
Agradecimentos
Introdução
1.A corrupção da República
2.A corrupção da humanidade
3.Pastores, ovelhas e lobos
4.Tomar o alheio
5.O ódio dos vassalos
6.Reputação, autoridade e corrupção
Afetos, o veneno da República
Criados, parentes e achegados
O mal ganhado ou o turpe lucrum
Governo de proveito
Entre o castigo e a dissimulação
Fontes e bibliografia
Reviewer
Daniel Costa is a historian and professor with a degree in History from Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP). He has been researching corruption in Portuguese America, specifically in the 18th century. He has published, among other works, Corrupção, corruptores e contrabando: uma discussão historiográfica sobre práticas ilícitas na América Portuguesa (C. Século XVIII) (2022) eCaminhando entre veredas: Apontamentos sobre o contrabando e corrupção na América portuguesa (Pernambuco 1758-1778) (2023). ID LATTES: http://lattes.cnpq.br/9383874655339999 ; ID ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7786-2678; E-mail: d.silva16@unifesp.br.
To cite this review
ROMERO, Adriana. Ladrões da República: Corrupção, moral e cobiça no Brasil, séculos XVI a XVIII. São Paulo: Fino Traço, 2023. 420p. Review of: COSTA, Daniel. Ilicitudes na América portuguesa. Crítica Historiográfica. Natal, v.4, n.17, Mar /Apr, 2024. Available at <Ilicitudes na América portuguesa – Resenha de Daniel Costa sobre o livro “Ladrões da República: Corrupção, moral e cobiça no Brasil, séculos XVI a XVIII”, de Adriana Romeiro – Crítica Historiografica (criticahistoriografica.com.br)>
Illicit behavior in Portuguese America – Daniel Costa’s (UNIFESP) review of the book “Ladrões da República: Corrupção, moral e cobiça no Brasil, séculos XVI a XVIII”, by Adriana Romeiro
Abstract: In her book Thieves of the Republic: Corruption, Morality, and Greed in Brazil, 16th-18th Centuries, Adriana Romeiro aims to understand corruption in colonial Brazil. To this end, she employs a wide variety of sources to explore the relationships between money, government, and corruption. The work has been praised for its depth and criticized for its density.
Keywords: Corruption, morality, and Republic.
It is evident that those who are informed about the news and the activities of Brazilian politicians, even in a superficial manner, are aware that corruption is a recurring theme. From the term “sea of mud,” coined by Carlos Lacerda during his campaign against the Vargas government in the 1950s, to the image shown by Jornal Nacional of oil pipelines gushing with dirty money at the height of the infamous Lava Jato operation, the subject, which should be taken seriously, is used as fodder for a partial, shallow debate based on many interests, except for actually combating such practices. The recent publication of Ladrões da República: Corrupção, Moral e Cobiça no Brasil, Séculos XVI a XVIII (Thieves of the Republic: Corruption, Morality and Greed in Brazil, 16th to 18th Centuries) by Adriana Romeiro offers a fundamental study for understanding this practice in Brazil between the 16th and 18th centuries.
Adriana Romeiro holds a PhD in History from the State University of Campinas (Unicamp) and is a professor in the History Department at the Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG). Over the course of eleven chapters, the historian, who specializes in political cultures in Minas Gerais and corruption in the Iberian world, endeavors to elucidate the perception of the ideas, images, and practices of corruption during the period in question. “Of the many phenomena associated with this word, I was particularly interested in investigating the relationship between money, government, and corruption. This investigation was undertaken in order to understand how the debate was articulated at the time, both in discourse and in practice, on the subject of the greed of rulers.” (p. 17).
Over the course of eleven chapters, the historian endeavors to elucidate the perceptions of the ideas, images, and practices of corruption during the period under consideration. Of the myriad phenomena associated with this word, the author was particularly interested in investigating the relationship between money, government, and corruption. This investigation was undertaken with the objective of understanding how the debate surrounding the greed of rulers was then articulated, both in discourse and in practice.
In order to further elucidate the nuances of corruption in the political and social imagination of the period, Romeiro draws upon the theses presented in the book Corrupção e Poder no Brasil: Uma História, Séculos XVI a XVIII (Corruption and Power in Brazil: A History, 16th to 18th Centuries), released in 2017. To achieve this, the historian draws upon a diverse array of sources, including official colonial administration documentation, literary and theatrical plays, political and moral treatises, and other historical materials. According to Adriana Romeiro, the historian’s use of a diverse range of sources is intended to demonstrate that the discourses associating corruption with the love of money and practices of favoritism were not confined to political-moral writings, but were instead widely shared and shaped the grammar and political practice of men and women (p. 19).
The meaning of the word “corruption” and the very act of corrupting have not been immune to the transformations that have taken place in society over time. This has led to heated debates among historians about the relevance of using the concept of corruption for cases that occurred in the 18th century. The lack of clarity in the use of the term can lead historians to commit various anachronisms, which can cause damage to the analysis of the cases in question. To mitigate these risks, Adriana employs an analytical strategy informed by the history of concepts as elucidated by historian Reinhart Koselleck. In the introductory chapter of the publication, the historian delineates her methodology for navigating the potential pitfalls. She writes, “In order to exorcise the ghost of the present, I have endeavored to approach the past in the same way that anthropologists observe traditional communities, taking the necessary methodological precautions so as not to empty it of its otherness.” Furthermore, she states that the methodology employed can be summarized as the “analytical reconstruction of differences.” As a result, the reader will encounter, for example, an almost obsessive care in the treatment of the lexicon with which contemporaries at the time elaborated the reflection on corruption (p. 18).
In addition to Koselleck, the author draws upon the analytical method developed by Romeiro to continue the historiographical tradition established by prominent figures such as Sérgio Buarque de Holanda, Caio Prado Júnior, Fernando Novais, and Laura de Mello e Souza. In addition to the aforementioned authors, the reader will be able to engage in a productive dialogue with Hispanic authors, as the subject has recently undergone a significant shift in theoretical perspectives. After overcoming the dominant discourse on the subject, which advocated moralistic interpretations, the subject has witnessed a vigorous movement of renewal in recent decades (p.21).
The author identifies several reasons for the prominence of this dialogue with Hispanic authors. One reason is that in the Luso-Brazilian academic milieu, the history of corruption seems to advance at a slow pace, still relegated to a position that is more transversal than central. This is perplexing when one considers the pivotal role of corruption in the colonial universe. This phenomenon was intrinsic to the society of the time, manifesting in various forms, including local politics, the formation of an economic and political elite, and, most importantly, the process of capital accumulation.
The first two chapters of the book are dedicated to elucidating the meaning of corruption in the context of the Republic and humanity during that period. The association between the interpretation of corruption as a political act and the corruption of society as a whole can be seen as a key factor in the perception of corruption as a highly detrimental phenomenon. According to Romeiro, The term “corruption” was employed in two distinct fields: medical treatises and political-moral writings. In the former, it was used to describe pathological conditions associated with the deterioration of bodily parts, while in the latter, it referred to the process of moral decay and the decline of republican institutions.
In subsequent chapters, the historian presents examples from various sources, including moral and political writings, sermons, poems, and literature, to illustrate the individuals and groups who were corrupted by the phenomenon of corruption and contributed to the downfall of the Roman Republic. Thus, among those who were prodigal, avaricious, or tyrannical in their service, the common good was mixed with the private. Romeiro explains that “the notion of the common good presented itself as a field of dispute over its multiple meanings, which reflected the plurality of social groups’ horizons of expectation.” However, such clashes did not prevent the meaning from generally resulting in “manipulation to cover up and promote private interests” (p.145).
In tracing the process of consolidating an administrative structure in the colony, Adriana Romeiro demonstrates how the perception of acts of corruption gradually acquired new meanings for the population, moving from an attitude of tolerance to confrontation. This is exemplified by the case where “residents of Salvador sent an attorney to Lisbon with the mission of presenting their complaints to the king” (p.188) about the local council’s attitude towards collecting taxes and awarding contracts.
The intricate relationships between rulers and their servants, relatives, and close friends are examined by the author, who shows that, faced with pre-established conventions and considering the derisory salaries, these authorities ended up taking advantage of illicit expedients to support their cronies, generating noise among the population. This was also frowned upon by the Crown, which wanted a harmonious territory with peaceful governance.
Corrupt and corrupting courtiers | Image: IF/ChatGPT
In the face of the various cases of corruption, those who committed the crime did not always face consequences. Instead, the network of established relationships often resulted in the person responsible for the crime being released. A case in point is the governor Sebastião de Castro e Caldas, classified by one historian as “a despotic, immoral man, without religion and whose ambition knew no bounds” (p. 322). A governor who “had put private convenience above the interests of the Crown” had carried out “a veritable rosary of misdeeds” (p. 344). After being sent to Portugal under arrest, his residence was approved and he was even rehabilitated.
The case of Castro Caldas, one of several episodes narrated by the author throughout the book, illustrates the significance of the protection networks established by these agents. For the chamberlains, the governor’s actions had been so damaging that “two hands of paper would not be enough to write to Your Majesty about the oppressions, annoyances, and hardships suffered by these people” (p. 344). With regard to the judge responsible for his residence, the author notes that the judge did not impute any crime to him. Instead, the judge praised Caldas, stating that he was “one of the best governors to have known that captaincy,” and that he had acted with satisfaction, cleanliness of hands, zeal, care, and integrity in the duties of his office (p. 344).
In her recent publication, Ladrões da República: Corrupção, Moral e Cobiça no Brasil, Séculos XVI a XVIII (Thieves of the Republic: Corruption, Morality and Greed in Brazil, 16th to 18th Centuries), historian Adriana Romeiro presents a comprehensive and detailed analysis of the historical context surrounding corruption in Brazil. The book is a dense work, both in terms of the number of sources cited and the extensive bibliography consulted. In the book’s introduction, Romeiro states that the thesis presented throughout the pages concerns the existence of a robust web of moral norms that established limits for the actions of public figures, with the aim of preventing them from appropriating other people’s property in the exercise of their functions. The author takes a stance against researchers from the modern age who view enrichment through positions and posts, as well as the favoring of relatives and friends, as legitimate and socially accepted practices. The author’s objective is to demonstrate that the association of these behaviors with corruption was pervasive in the treatises and speeches of the vassals, influencing what might be termed the moral economy of corruption (p. 19).
In light of the aforementioned, Adriana Romeiro has fulfilled the objectives set for her work. Despite the density of the text, it is recommended reading for non-academic readers, as the list of examples provided by the author contributes to understanding her theses. At the same time, she offers various paths for those dedicated to studying the subject and challenges common assumptions about corruption, which is experienced on a daily basis by some political groups and sectors of the hegemonic media.
Summary of Ladrões da República: Corrupção, moral e cobiça no Brasil, séculos XVI a XVIII
Agradecimentos
Introdução
1.A corrupção da República
2.A corrupção da humanidade
3.Pastores, ovelhas e lobos
4.Tomar o alheio
5.O ódio dos vassalos
6.Reputação, autoridade e corrupção
Afetos, o veneno da República
Criados, parentes e achegados
O mal ganhado ou o turpe lucrum
Governo de proveito
Entre o castigo e a dissimulação
Fontes e bibliografia
Reviewer
Daniel Costa is a historian and professor with a degree in History from Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP). He has been researching corruption in Portuguese America, specifically in the 18th century. He has published, among other works, Corrupção, corruptores e contrabando: uma discussão historiográfica sobre práticas ilícitas na América Portuguesa (C. Século XVIII) (2022) eCaminhando entre veredas: Apontamentos sobre o contrabando e corrupção na América portuguesa (Pernambuco 1758-1778) (2023). ID LATTES: http://lattes.cnpq.br/9383874655339999 ; ID ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7786-2678; E-mail: d.silva16@unifesp.br.
To cite this review
ROMERO, Adriana. Ladrões da República: Corrupção, moral e cobiça no Brasil, séculos XVI a XVIII. São Paulo: Fino Traço, 2023. 420p. Review of: COSTA, Daniel. Ilicitudes na América portuguesa. Crítica Historiográfica. Natal, v.4, n.17, Mar /Apr, 2024. Available at <Ilicitudes na América portuguesa – Resenha de Daniel Costa sobre o livro “Ladrões da República: Corrupção, moral e cobiça no Brasil, séculos XVI a XVIII”, de Adriana Romeiro – Crítica Historiografica (criticahistoriografica.com.br)>
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Adriana Romeiro holds a PhD in History from the State University of Campinas (Unicamp) and is a professor in the History Department at the Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG). Over the course of eleven chapters, the historian, who specializes in political cultures in Minas Gerais and corruption in the Iberian world, endeavors to elucidate the perception of the ideas, images, and practices of corruption during the period in question. “Of the many phenomena associated with this word, I was particularly interested in investigating the relationship between money, government, and corruption. This investigation was undertaken in order to understand how the debate was articulated at the time, both in discourse and in practice, on the subject of the greed of rulers.” (p. 17).
Daniel Costa is a historian and professor with a degree in History from Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP). He has been researching corruption in Portuguese America, specifically in the 18th century. He has published, among other works, Corrupção, corruptores e contrabando: uma discussão historiográfica sobre práticas ilícitas na América Portuguesa (C. Século XVIII) (2022) e Caminhando entre veredas: Apontamentos sobre o contrabando e corrupção na América portuguesa (Pernambuco 1758-1778) (2023). ID LATTES: http://lattes.cnpq.br/9383874655339999 ; ID ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7786-2678; E-mail: d.silva16@unifesp.br.
